Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold

Lamla Thungatha; Nobuhle Nyembe; Tshepo Qhamakwane; Conrad Mahlase; Lisa Ngcebesha

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold

Lamla Thungatha^*

, Nobuhle Nyembe

, Tshepo Qhamakwane, Conrad Mahlase

, Lisa Ngcebesha

Published in American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology (Volume 10, Issue 1)

Received: 30 January 2025 Accepted: 19 February 2025 Published: 6 March 2025

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Abstract

2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive that is well known for its stable nature, performance, and reliability. It is used in the military and mining industries as it can be cast into various shapes due to its ease of processing at its melting temperature of 80 to 82°C. It can be processed safely within melting temperature without the risk of thermal and impact-related initiation. Despite these properties, casting defect-free charges of uniform density is challenging. Hence, there is a need for targeted quality control measures and process optimisation to minimise density variations and defect formation in manufacturing. In this work the defects formation is mapped for a 10 kg anti-tank landmine, this is done by melting and casting TNT into a 10 kg anti-tank landmine fibre glass mould without any controlled cooling method. The melting and cooling temperature profiles of the TNT casing process were manually monitored using an infrared camera and the process was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The resulting cast was characterised by Vidisco foXRayzor Digital X-Ray and Irdium-192 (192lr) radioactive source. The findings from this study depicted a dense structure at the mould’s margins compared to the booster centre. The less dense area also showed a high proportion of defects which were attributed to shrinkage during cooling.

Published in	American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology (Volume 10, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
Page(s)	27-39
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene, Anti-tank, Melt and Cast, Casting Defects, Mapping

References

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APA Style

Thungatha, L., Nyembe, N., Qhamakwane, T., Mahlase, C., Ngcebesha, L. (2025). Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, 10(1), 27-39. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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ACS Style

Thungatha, L.; Nyembe, N.; Qhamakwane, T.; Mahlase, C.; Ngcebesha, L. Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. Am. J. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2025, 10(1), 27-39. doi: 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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AMA Style

Thungatha L, Nyembe N, Qhamakwane T, Mahlase C, Ngcebesha L. Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. Am J Sci Eng Technol. 2025;10(1):27-39. doi: 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13,
  author = {Lamla Thungatha and Nobuhle Nyembe and Tshepo Qhamakwane and Conrad Mahlase and Lisa Ngcebesha},
  title = {Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold
},
  journal = {American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology},
  volume = {10},
  number = {1},
  pages = {27-39},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajset.20251001.13},
  abstract = {2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive that is well known for its stable nature, performance, and reliability. It is used in the military and mining industries as it can be cast into various shapes due to its ease of processing at its melting temperature of 80 to 82°C. It can be processed safely within melting temperature without the risk of thermal and impact-related initiation. Despite these properties, casting defect-free charges of uniform density is challenging. Hence, there is a need for targeted quality control measures and process optimisation to minimise density variations and defect formation in manufacturing. In this work the defects formation is mapped for a 10 kg anti-tank landmine, this is done by melting and casting TNT into a 10 kg anti-tank landmine fibre glass mould without any controlled cooling method. The melting and cooling temperature profiles of the TNT casing process were manually monitored using an infrared camera and the process was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The resulting cast was characterised by Vidisco foXRayzor Digital X-Ray and Irdium-192 (192lr) radioactive source. The findings from this study depicted a dense structure at the mould’s margins compared to the booster centre. The less dense area also showed a high proportion of defects which were attributed to shrinkage during cooling.
},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold

AU  - Lamla Thungatha
AU  - Nobuhle Nyembe
AU  - Tshepo Qhamakwane
AU  - Conrad Mahlase
AU  - Lisa Ngcebesha
Y1  - 2025/03/06
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
T2  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
JF  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
JO  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
SP  - 27
EP  - 39
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-8353
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
AB  - 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive that is well known for its stable nature, performance, and reliability. It is used in the military and mining industries as it can be cast into various shapes due to its ease of processing at its melting temperature of 80 to 82°C. It can be processed safely within melting temperature without the risk of thermal and impact-related initiation. Despite these properties, casting defect-free charges of uniform density is challenging. Hence, there is a need for targeted quality control measures and process optimisation to minimise density variations and defect formation in manufacturing. In this work the defects formation is mapped for a 10 kg anti-tank landmine, this is done by melting and casting TNT into a 10 kg anti-tank landmine fibre glass mould without any controlled cooling method. The melting and cooling temperature profiles of the TNT casing process were manually monitored using an infrared camera and the process was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The resulting cast was characterised by Vidisco foXRayzor Digital X-Ray and Irdium-192 (192lr) radioactive source. The findings from this study depicted a dense structure at the mould’s margins compared to the booster centre. The less dense area also showed a high proportion of defects which were attributed to shrinkage during cooling.

VL  - 10
IS  - 1
ER  -

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Author Information

Lamla Thungatha

Meiring Naudé Rd, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Brummeria, Pretoria, South Africa

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1104-5752
Nobuhle Nyembe

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Glenwood, Durban, South Africa

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1311-5398
Tshepo Qhamakwane

Meiring Naudé Rd, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Brummeria, Pretoria, South Africa

Contact Email
Conrad Mahlase

Meiring Naudé Rd, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Brummeria, Pretoria, South Africa

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0003-4977-7267
Lisa Ngcebesha

Meiring Naudé Rd, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Brummeria, Pretoria, South Africa

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http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5089-6701

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Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Thungatha, L., Nyembe, N., Qhamakwane, T., Mahlase, C., Ngcebesha, L. (2025). Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, 10(1), 27-39. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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ACS Style

Thungatha, L.; Nyembe, N.; Qhamakwane, T.; Mahlase, C.; Ngcebesha, L. Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. Am. J. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2025, 10(1), 27-39. doi: 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

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AMA Style

Thungatha L, Nyembe N, Qhamakwane T, Mahlase C, Ngcebesha L. Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold. Am J Sci Eng Technol. 2025;10(1):27-39. doi: 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13,
  author = {Lamla Thungatha and Nobuhle Nyembe and Tshepo Qhamakwane and Conrad Mahlase and Lisa Ngcebesha},
  title = {Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold
},
  journal = {American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology},
  volume = {10},
  number = {1},
  pages = {27-39},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajset.20251001.13},
  abstract = {2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive that is well known for its stable nature, performance, and reliability. It is used in the military and mining industries as it can be cast into various shapes due to its ease of processing at its melting temperature of 80 to 82°C. It can be processed safely within melting temperature without the risk of thermal and impact-related initiation. Despite these properties, casting defect-free charges of uniform density is challenging. Hence, there is a need for targeted quality control measures and process optimisation to minimise density variations and defect formation in manufacturing. In this work the defects formation is mapped for a 10 kg anti-tank landmine, this is done by melting and casting TNT into a 10 kg anti-tank landmine fibre glass mould without any controlled cooling method. The melting and cooling temperature profiles of the TNT casing process were manually monitored using an infrared camera and the process was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The resulting cast was characterised by Vidisco foXRayzor Digital X-Ray and Irdium-192 (192lr) radioactive source. The findings from this study depicted a dense structure at the mould’s margins compared to the booster centre. The less dense area also showed a high proportion of defects which were attributed to shrinkage during cooling.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mapping the Orientation and Distribution of Defects for the Natural Casting of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 10kg Anti-tank Landmine Mold

AU  - Lamla Thungatha
AU  - Nobuhle Nyembe
AU  - Tshepo Qhamakwane
AU  - Conrad Mahlase
AU  - Lisa Ngcebesha
Y1  - 2025/03/06
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
T2  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
JF  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
JO  - American Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology
SP  - 27
EP  - 39
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-8353
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajset.20251001.13
AB  - 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive that is well known for its stable nature, performance, and reliability. It is used in the military and mining industries as it can be cast into various shapes due to its ease of processing at its melting temperature of 80 to 82°C. It can be processed safely within melting temperature without the risk of thermal and impact-related initiation. Despite these properties, casting defect-free charges of uniform density is challenging. Hence, there is a need for targeted quality control measures and process optimisation to minimise density variations and defect formation in manufacturing. In this work the defects formation is mapped for a 10 kg anti-tank landmine, this is done by melting and casting TNT into a 10 kg anti-tank landmine fibre glass mould without any controlled cooling method. The melting and cooling temperature profiles of the TNT casing process were manually monitored using an infrared camera and the process was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The resulting cast was characterised by Vidisco foXRayzor Digital X-Ray and Irdium-192 (192lr) radioactive source. The findings from this study depicted a dense structure at the mould’s margins compared to the booster centre. The less dense area also showed a high proportion of defects which were attributed to shrinkage during cooling.

VL  - 10
IS  - 1
ER  -

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